Performance Under Stress – Implications for Tactical Personnel

by Mark Stephenson, MS, ATC, CSCS,*D, TSAC-F,*D, Whitney Tramel, CSCS, TSAC-F, and Robin Orr, PhD, TSAC-F,*D
TSAC Report March 2023
Vol 67, Issue 6

Share:
Available to:
Members only
Audience:
TSAC Facilitators

This article discusses performance under stress, as well as factors influencing this performance in tactical personnel.

Paywall block issue

This article is not configured properly for members or paid content.
isMemberOnly: {{isMemberOnly}} | isPaidContent: {{isPaidContent}}
spc: One or more parts of the product SPC is missing.

Read the full article

View the video

Login to view more


{{discountDesc}} Valid thru {{discountEnds}}

This {{ogType == 'video.other' ? 'video':'article'}} is available with a NSCA membership

This {{ogType == 'video.other' ? 'video':'article'}} can be purchased for {{prices}}
Price includes membership pricing and promotions

Purchase this {{ogType == 'video.other' ? 'video':'article'}}. Price range: {{prices}}
Price range includes membership pricing and promotions

Become a Member Add to Cart Login

This article originally appeared in TSAC Report, the NSCA’s quarterly, online-only publication geared toward the training of tactical athletes, operators, and facilitators. It provides research-based articles, performance drills, and conditioning techniques for operational, tactical athletes. The TSAC Report is only available for NSCA Members. Read more articles from TSAC Report 

Related Reading

Share:

References

  1. Aich P, Potter AA, and Griebel PJ. Modern approaches to understanding stress and disease susceptibility: A review with special emphasis on respiratory disease. International Journal of General Medicine 2: 19, 2009.
  2. Anderson, GS, Di Nota, PM, Metz, GAS, and Andersen, JP. The impact of acute stress physiology on skilled motor performance: Implications for policing. Frontiers in Psychology 10, 2019.
  3. Andrew, ME, Violanti, JM, Gu, JK, Fekedulegn, D, Li, S, Hartley, TA, et al. Police work stressors and cardiac vagal control. American Journal of Human Biology 29: e22996, 2017.
  4. Arnetz, B, Nevedal, D, and Lumley, M. Trauma resilience training for police: Psychophysiological and performance effects Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 24, 2008.
  5. Bertilsson, J, Niehorster, DC, Fredriksson, P, Dahl, M, Granér, S, Fredriksson, O, et al. Towards systematic and objective evaluation of police officer performance in stressful situations. Police Practice and Research 21: 655-669, 2020.
  6. Brisinda, D, Venuti, A, Cataldi, C, Efremov, K, Intorno, E, and Fenici, R. Real-time imaging of stress-induced cardiac autonomic adaptation during realistic force-on-force police scenarios. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 30: 71-86, 2015.
  7. Buckley, S, Chaput, M, Simon, JE, Criss, CR, Brazalovich, P, McCarren, G, Yom, J, and Grooms, DR. Cognitive load impairs time to initiate and complete shooting tasks in ROTC members. Military Medicine 2021.
  8. Charles, LE, Fekedulegn, D, Burchfiel, CM, Hartley, TA, Andrew, ME, Violanti, JM, and Miller, DB. Shiftwork and diurnal salivary cortisol patterns among police officers. Journal of Occupational Environmental Medicine 58: 542-549, 2016.
  9. Clemente-Suárez, VJ, de la Vega, R, Robles-Pérez, JJ, Lautenschlaeger, M, and Fernández-Lucas, J. Experience modulates the psychophysiological response of airborne warfighters during a tactical combat parachute jump. International Journal of Psychophysiology 110: 212-216, 2016.
  10. Clemente-Suarez, VJ, Palomera, PR, and Robles-Perez, JJ. Psychophysiological response to acute-high-stress combat situations in professional soldiers. Stress Health 34: 247-252, 2018.
  11. Cool, J, and Zappetti, D. The physiology of stress. Medical Student Well-Being. Springer. 1-15, 2019
  12. Delahaij, R, and Soeters, J. Stress training and the new military environment. In proceedings of TNO Defence Security and Safety, Soesterberg, Netherlands. 2006.
  13. Delgado-Moreno, R, Robles-Perez, JJ, Aznar-Lain, S, and Clemente-Suarez, VJ. Effect of experience and psychophysiological modification by combat stress in soldier’s memory. Journal of Medical Systems 43, 2019.
  14. Fischer, MV, Stone, J, Hawkes, TD, Eveland, E, and Strang, AJ. Integrative physical and cognitive training development to better meet airmen mission requirements. Procedia Manufacturing 3: 1580-1586, 2015.
  15. Gomez-Oliva, E, Robles-Perez, JJ, Ruiz-Barquin, R, Hidalgo- Bellota, F, and de la Vega, R. Psychophysiological response to the use of nuclear, biological and chemical equipment with military tasks. Physiology Behavior 204: 186-190, 2019.
  16. Hamilton, JA, Lambert, G, Suss, J, and Biggs, AT. Can cognitive training improve shoot/don’t-shoot performance? Evidence from live fire exercises. The American Journal of Psychology 132: 179-194, 2019.
  17. Herman, JP, McKlveen, JM, Ghosal, S, Kopp, B, Wulsin, A, Makinson, R, et al. Regulation of the hypothalamicpituitary- adrenocortical stress response. Comprehensive Physiology 6: 603, 2016.
  18. Hormeno-Holgado, AJ, and Clemente-Suarez, VJ. Psychophysiological monitorization in a special operation selection course. Journal of Medicine and Systems 43: 47, 2019.
  19. Kelley, DC, Siegel, E, and Wormwood, JB. Understanding police performance under stress: Insights from the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat. Frontiers in Psychology 10: 1800, 2019.
  20. Landman, A, Nieuwenhuys, A, and Oudejans, RRD. Decisionrelated action orientation predicts police officers’ shooting performance under pressure. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 29: 570-579, 2016.
  21. Lentz, LM, Smith-MacDonald, L, Malloy, D, Carleton, RN, and Brémault-Phillips, S. Compromised conscience: A scoping review of moral injury among firefighters, paramedics, and police officers. Frontiers in Psychology 12, 2021.
  22. Lieberman, HR, Farina, EK, Caldwell, J, Williams, KW, Thompson, LA, Niro, PJ, Grohmann, KA, and McClung, JP. Cognitive function, stress hormones, heart rate and nutritional status during simulated captivity in military survival training. Physiology Behavior 165: 86-97, 2016.
  23. Liu, Y, Mao, L, Zhao, Y, and Huang, Y. Impact of a simulated stress training program on the tactical shooting performance of SWAT trainees. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 89: 482-489, 2018.
  24. Marcel-Millet, P, Ravier, G, Grospretre, S, Gimenez, P, Freidig, S, and Groslambert, A. Physiological responses and parasympathetic reactivation in rescue interventions: The effect of the breathing apparatus. Scandanavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 28: 2710-2722, 2018.
  25. McClung, JP, Martini, S, Murphy, NE, Montain, SJ, Margolis, LM, Thrana, I, et al. Effects of a 7-day military training exercise on inflammatory biomarkers, serum hepcidin, and iron status. Nutrition Journal 12, 2013.
  26. Meina, M, Ratajczak, E, Sadowska, M, Rykaczewski, K, Dreszer, J, Bałaj, B, et al. Heart rate variability and accelerometry as classification tools for monitoring perceived stress levels—A pilot study on firefighters. Sensors 20: 2834, 2020.
  27. Meyerhoff, JL, Saviolakis, GA, Burge, B, Norris, W, Wollert, T, Atkins, V, and Spielberger, CD. Errors in shooting judgment and performance by law enforcement personnel during a stressful training scenario. Walter Reed Army Institute of Reseach Silver Spring, 2004.
  28. Mücke, M, Ludyga, S, Colledge, F, Pühse, U, and Gerber, M. Association of exercise with inhibitory control and prefrontal brain activity under acute psychosocial stress. Brain Sciences 10: 439, 2020.
  29. Nieuwenhuys, A, and Oudejans, RD. Effects of anxiety on handgun shooting behavior of police officers: A pilot study. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 23: 225-233, 2010.
  30. Nindl, BC, Barnes, BR, Alemany, JA, Frykman, PN, Shippee, RL, and Friedl, KE. Physiological consequences of U.S. Army Ranger training. Medicine and Science in Sports Exercise 39: 1380-1387, 2007.
  31. Nindl, BC, Leone, CD, Tharion, WJ, Johnson, RF, Castellani, JW, Patton, JF, and Montain, SJ. Physical performance responses during 72h of military operational stress. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 34: 1814-1822, 2002.
  32. Nisar, SK, and Rasheed, MI. Stress and performance: Investigating relationship between occupational stress, career satisfaction, and job performance of police employees. Journal of Public Affairs 20: e1986, 2020.
  33. Ötting, M, Deutscher, C, Schneemann, S, Langrock, R, Gehrmann, S, and Scholten, H. Performance under pressure in skill tasks: An analysis of professional darts. PloS One 15: e0228870, 2020.
  34. Oudejans, RRD, Kuijpers, W, Kooijman, CC, and Bakker, FC. Thoughts and attention of athletes under pressure: Skill-focus or performance worries? Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 24: 59-73, 2011.
  35. Page, JW, Asken, M, Zwemer, CF, and Guido, M. Brief mental skills training improves memory and performance in high stress police cadet training. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 31: 122-126, 2016.
  36. Perroni, F, Guidetti, L, Cignitti, L, and Baldari, C. Psychophysiological responses of firefighters to emergencies: A review. Open Sports Sciences Journal 7: 8-15, 2014.
  37. Perroni, F, Tessitore, A, Cibelli, G, Lupo, C, D’Artibale, E, Cortis, C, et al. Effects of simulated firefighting on the responses of salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase and psychological variables. Ergonomics 52: 484-491, 2009.
  38. Phillips-Wren, G, and Adya, M. Decision making under stress: the role of information overload, time pressure, complexity, and uncertainty. Journal of Decision Systems: 1-13, 2020.
  39. Rao, HM, Smalt, CJ, Rodriguez, A, Wright, HM, Mehta, DD, Brattain, LJ, et al. Predicting cognitive load and operational performance in a simulated marksmanship task. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 2020.
  40. Sanchez-Molina, J, Robles-Perez, JJ, and Clemente-Suarez, VJ. Psychophysiological and specific fine motor skill modifications in a checkpoint action. Journal of Medicine Systems 43: 90, 2019.
  41. Schücker, L, Hagemann, N, and Strauss, B. Attentional processes and choking under pressure. Perceptual and Motor Skills 116: 671-689, 2013.
  42. Selye, H. Stress and the general adaptation syndrome. British Medical Journal 1: 1383, 1950.
  43. Stephenson, MD, Schram, B, Canetti, EFD, and Orr, R. Effects of acute stress on psychophysiology in armed tactical occupations: A narrative review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19: 1802, 2022.
  44. Stephenson, MD, Thompson, AG, Merrigan, JJ, Stone, JD, and Hagen, JA. Applying heart rate variability to monitor health and performance in tactical personnel: A narrative review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18: 8143, 2021.
  45. Szivak, TK, Lee, EC, Saenz, C, Flanagan, SD, Focht, BC, Volek, JS, Maresh, CM, and Kraemer, WJ. Adrenal stress and physical performance during military survival training. Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance 89: 99-107, 2018.
  46. Taverniers, J, Smeets, T, Van Ruysseveldt, J, Syroit, J, and von Grumbkow, J. The risk of being shot at: Stress, cortisol secretion, and their impact on memory and perceived learning during realitybased practice for armed officers. International Journal of Stress Management 18: 113, 2011.
  47. Taylor, MK, Markham, AE, Reis, JP, Padilla, GA, Potterant, EG, Drummond, SP, and Mujica-Parodi, LR. Physical fitness influences stress reactions to extreme military training. Military Medicine 173, 2008.
  48. Thompson, AG, Swain, DP, Branch, JD, Spina, RJ, and Grieco, CR. Autonomic response to tactical pistol performance measured by heart rate variability. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 29: 926-933, 2015.
  49. Tornero-Aguilera, JF, Robles-Perez, JJ, and Clemente- Suarez, VJ. Effect of combat stress in the psychophysiological response of elite and non-elite soldiers. Journal of Medical Systems 41: 100, 2017.
  50. Tsatsoulis, A, and Fountoulakis, S. The protective role of exercise on stress system dysregulation and comorbidities. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences 1083, 2006.
  51. Vaara, JP, Kalliomaa, R, Hynnenen, P, and Kyrolainen, H. Physical fitness and hormonal profile during an 11-week paratroop training period. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 29, 2015.
  52. Vartanian, O, Fraser, B, Saunders, D, Suurd Ralph, C, Lieberman, HR, Morgan, CA, 3rd, and Cheung, B. Changes in mood, fatigue, sleep, cognitive performance and stress hormones among instructors conducting stressful military captivity survival training. Physiology and Behavior 194: 137-143, 2018.
  53. Vicente-Rodriguez, M, Fuentes-Garcia, JP, and Clemente- Suarez, VJ. Psychophysiological stress response in an underwater evacuation training. Internatioanl Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, 2020.
  54. Vickers, JN, and Lewinski, W. Performing under pressure: Gaze control, decision making and shooting performance of elite and rookie police officers. Human Movement Science 31: 101-117, 2012.
  55. Vickers, JN, and Williams, AM. Performing under pressure: The effects of physiological arousal, cognitive anxiety, and gaze control in biathlon. Journal of Motor Behavior 39: 381-394, 2007.
  56. Vincze, J, and Vincze-Tiszay, G. The physiological aspects of the stress. Journal of Medical Biomedical and Applied Sciences 8: 529-534, 2020.
  57. Wadsworth, ME, Broderick, AV, Loughlin-Presnal, JE, Bendezu, JJ, Joos, CM, Ahlkvist, JA, et al. Co-activation of SAM and HPA responses to acute stress: A review of the literature and test of differential associations with preadolescents’ internalizing and externalizing. Developmental Psychobiology 61: 1079-1093, 2019.
  58. Yao, Z, Yuan, Y, Buchanan, TW, Zhang, K, Zhang, L, and Wu, J. Greater heart rate responses to acute stress are associated with better post-error adjustment in special police cadets. PLoS One 11: e0159322, 2016.
  59. Young, ES, Doom, JR, Farrell, AK, Carlson, EA, Englund, MM, Miller, GE, et al. Life stress and cortisol reactivity: An exploratory analysis of the effects of stress exposure across life on HPA-axis functioning. Development and Psychopathology 33: 301-312, 2021.
  60. Zare S, Hemmatjo, R, Allahyari, T, Hajaghazadeh, M, Hajivandi, A, Aghabeigi, M, and Kazemi, R. Comparison of the effect of typical firefighting activities, live fire drills and rescue operations at height on firefighters’ physiological responses and cognitive function. Ergonomics 61: 1334-1344, 2018.
  61. Zare, S, Hemmatjo, R, Allahyari, T, Hajaghazadeh, M, Hajivandi, A, Aghabeigi, M, and Kazemi, R. Comparison of the effect of typical firefighting activities, live fire drills and rescue operations at height on firefighters’ physiological responses and cognitive function. Ergonomics 61: 1334-1344, 2018.
About the author

Mark Stephenson, MS, ATC, CSCS,*D, TSAC-F,*D

Contact Mark Stephenson

Contact Mark Stephenson

Your first name is required.
Your last name is required.
Your email is required.
Your message is required.
Your reCaptcha is required.

Your email was successfully sent to Mark Stephenson

Mark Stephenson serves as the Director of Sports Performance for Mass General Brighams Center for Sports Performance and Research and is a PhD student ...

View full biography
About the author

Whitney Nicole Tramel, MS, CSCS, TSAC-F

Contact Whitney Tramel

Contact Whitney Tramel

Your first name is required.
Your last name is required.
Your email is required.
Your message is required.
Your reCaptcha is required.

Your email was successfully sent to Whitney Tramel

Whitney Tramel is a strength and conditioning coach and PhD candidate. Tramel has worked with a variety of athletes at the high school and collegiate ...

View full biography
About the author

Robin M. Orr, PhD, TSAC-F,*D

Contact Robin Orr

Contact Robin Orr

Your first name is required.
Your last name is required.
Your email is required.
Your message is required.
Your reCaptcha is required.

Your email was successfully sent to Robin Orr

Rob Orr is an Associate Professor of Physiotherapy at Bond University in Australia. He is the Director of the Tactical Research Unit, a multidisciplin ...

View full biography
Available to:
Members only
Audience:
TSAC Facilitators
#NSCAStrong #NSCAStrong

has been added to your shopping cart!

Continue Shopping Checkout Now